Neutral coverage prevailed, with 354 texts in total, representing over 86 percent of the whole dataset. Simultaneously, there were considerably more negative texts (38, more than nine percent of all) than positive ones (17 in total, four percent of the sample).

Interestingly, the focus of many of the analysed articles shifted towards strategic and security implications of Chinese investment instead of covering perceived benefits only, as it was the case in the previously studied period. Security-related issues were mentioned in over 36 percent of all analyzed texts. Moreover, in more than 40 percent of all pieces, Chinese investment was in one way or another depicted against the backdrop of the role of the US on the international arena. 

As far as specific investment areas are concerned, infrastructure, innovations (artificial intelligence, Internet of Things, cloud computing) and energy sector appeared as the top-three most mentioned topics. Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) also attracted a lot of attention as it appeared in more than 26 percent of all texts, marking continuity with the previously studied period. Nevertheless, new topics also emerged, such as technology transfer and intellectual property rights violations or Chinese companies’ bad practices. 

As the EU began to perceive China as not only an economic partner, but also a strategic rival, Polish media also evolved in its coverage. Noticeably, many outlets began to cover issues such as planned restrictions on Chinese investment in Europe or calls for trade and investment reciprocity on the Chinese market, albeit to a limited extent and mostly in the form of short news.

When it comes to their tone, most articles were neutral (399 pieces representing over 88 percent of the whole sample). While decidedly positive and negative coverage was rare, the latter was more prevalent (21 positive texts vs. 32 negative). 

Positive coverage was, to a large degree, the result of Huawei’s PR efforts as it came from interviews with Huawei representatives or Chinese diplomats (like the firm’s founder Ren Zhengfei, Ryszard Hordyński from Huawei Poland or China’s ambassador to Poland Liu Guangyuan) and some rare examples of sponsored content. Negative sentiment sometimes prevailed in opinion pieces that referred to some hawkish public figures or were direct interviews with these sources. A key example of such a ‘hawk’ is retired US Air Force Brigadier General Robert Spalding, a former Trump administration advisor known for his Sino-skeptic views.

Huawei and, to a much lesser extent ZTE, were the two companies that appeared in almost all articles that touched upon the topic of 5G and China in the Polish media. 

The former was mentioned in 96 percent of analyzed media production, while the latter in over 16 percent. Initially, the two Chinese companies came up mostly in relation to mounting diplomatic tensions between Beijing and Washington as the Trump administration accelerated its efforts aimed at containing China’s rise. These efforts manifest also in the technological realm, such as in the imposition of restrictions on the operations of each firm in the US. In December 2018, Meng Wanzhou, Huawei’s CFO and the daughter of the firm’s founder, was arrested in Canada and charged with fraud for allegedly circumventing US sanctions against Iran. 

The event made the headlines in Poland. Yet a month later, a bigger scandal broke out: a Chinese Huawei employee and a Polish national were arrested in Warsaw on allegations of spying for China. Looking back in time, the event served as a catalyst for the development of the domestic debate on 5G and China’s involvement in the process. The so-called “spying scandal” appeared in over 12 percent of all pieces covering China and 5G in the studied dataset sample. 

Over time, security risks and cyber threats, as well as the role of the US, became the most prevalent topics within this debate. As the rivalry between Beijing and Washington escalated and its effects spilled over to third countries, Polish media began to cover domestic legal and political moves and adjustments in terms of Warsaw’s balancing of relations with both China and the US. 

In total, over 19 percent of all studied texts referred to the Polish government’s plans to control and protect domestic 5G networks, also in the context of perceived threat coming from the firms with alleged ties to the Chinese government. Topics such as the role of domestic telecommunications providers (like Orange, Play, T-Mobile or Plus) and their cooperation with Huawei, potential costs of Huawei’s exclusion and the general economic impact of 5G also started to be touched upon in the media. 

Evolving stories concerning Huawei’s treatment in different countries (especially Germany, the UK, and among the US allies) were monitored, with major developments covered quite extensively. When breakthrough documents were endorsed by the EU (EU 5G Toolbox) or Poland (US-Poland agreement on 5G cooperation), the media also reported on that. However, a lot of the coverage was purely informative, with few attempts to engage more critically with the topic and the events or processes surrounding it. A significant amount of coverage assumed a rather simplistic perspective, in which the US was pressuring Poland to make decisions in line with Washington’s interests. As such, little credence was offered to  Warsaw’s own agency in decision-making processes. 

Interestingly, Russia was also referred to more often than it might have been expected in the context of 5G and China: it appeared in over 10 percent of all studied texts. Oftentimes, it was mentioned in relation to its potential cooperation with Beijing in terms of creating international initiatives competing with the Western-led institutions, norms and standards.